The Medieval Period

The same stream that settled in Britain during the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon Period had gone to the northern of France in the fifth century. Here, the result of intermarriage between Norse people and the inhabitants of France created the Norman civilization.

After the invasion of the Vikings in Britain, the power in the island fluctuated between Danes and Anglo-Saxon kings, until William, Duke of Normandy, considering himself a descendant of both Danes and Anglo-Saxon, claimed the throne of Britain. Even though, Harold, an Anglo-Saxon, was made king. Afterwards, William realized that he could only become king of Britain by force. So he crossed the North Sea with an army at his back and defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings. This event which took place in 1066 is considered the beginning of the medieval period.

It’s important to compare some details about this following time to the previous in order to work out the extent of change the Normans imposed upon the Anglo-Saxon people. The Celtic people lived peacefully in Britain for more than eight hundred years. In the first century after Christ’s birth the Roman army occupied Britain and remained there for four hundred years. Within this period, England was regarded as a province of the Roman Empire and the distinction between Celtic inhabitants and Romans was always clear. Right after that, the Jutes, Angles and Saxons spent all the fifth century long to settle in the east of England. Hence, it’s easy to realize that all these changes had taken many centuries. The Normans, otherwise, managed to change Britain in a very short period.

With William came the Norman nobility, whose main language was Norman-French. Thus, words related to government – for instance “parliament”; “peers” – are from Norman-French as well as the vocabulary of law, such as “judge”, “jury”, “prisoner”. Many terms related to war, architecture, medicine also have French origin, which allow us to say that English language has the contribution of French in almost every field.

The common people carried on speaking Old English, besides being considered inferior by the conquerors, whose oppression had been represented throughout the ballads spread among the ordinary folk. Therefore, three different languages had been spoken in England by three different classes from what Middle English is a result. The necessity of communication between the Norman-French nobility and the Anglo-Saxon people made its work to mix their languages within a few generations. At a less extent, intermarriage also helped through this process dispite the fact that the Anglo-Saxon people, considering the Norman-French as oppressors, made a great effort to keep their dialects.

Right after the invasion of William, the dominance of Wessex dialect came to an end, bring back to the same level, at least in the spoken environment, all the other dialects of the former kingdoms of England. On the other hand, French and Latin were imposed through education and through the official written sources, once the religious doctrine were produced in Latin besides the papers inside the two colleges, while the laws and papers from the government were in French. Literature was generally made in both Latin and French. As the clergymen were familiarized with Latin, most of the religious literature, including translations and paraphrases of the bible, history of saints lives and sermons were written in Latin, while the secular literature was written in both Latin and French. The account for the dominance of Latin and French is quite simple. Writing was a activity for wealthy men, which means the aristocracy, whose main language was Norman-French. Alike, the scholars who had came from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and used to produce some pieces of prose and poetry had Latin as a common language. Hence, Old English written production seem to have stemmed for a while during the unilateral dominance of the Normans.

Old English lost most of its inflections and its pronunciation acquired a French manner. Plenty of French words displaced Anglo-Saxon terms such as ‘Haelend’ (the Healer), which gave way to the French “Savior”; ‘wanhope’ and ‘wonstead’ were displaced by “Despair” and “Residence”. Nevertheless, in same cases, they coexisted as synonyms:

On the very beginning of his reign, measures were taken by William to achieve the unification of England. The first one was to map the country, to work out how many kingdoms, how many people were under his power. Subsequently, he founded the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where Latin became the official language, to form the intellectuals of the period.

William and his successors also made changes over the Anglo-Saxon architecture and polity. The old buildings were destroyed and replaced by Norman castles as well as the Anglo-Saxon polity and power, which became concentrated at William’s hand. On the other hand, the Norman nobility received large pieces of land conducting the country into the feudal system. The dominated people, which means the Anglo-Saxons, became serfs of the Norman nobles.

Life in the medieval period was very simple, especially for the ordinary people to whom the variety of food was limited. They also had a little choice of clothes. Of course the situation for the noble people was quite different from this inasmuch as they had opportunity to show off their glamorous clothes at the halls of the castles, particularly during the long-lasting religious holidays, but in terms of comfort the poor and the rich shared the same lack of it inside their houses. Almost every piece of technology we know now-a-days were unavailable at that time, so they spend most of the daylight outdoors, which was certainly more pleasant due to the nonexistence of industries and factories to pollute the air; no cars to make noise all day long besides the great variety of woods and other green spots such as those pictured at the Robin Hood stories.

One thing that the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman had in common was religion. Both of them were Christian. The great influence of the Christian church can be seen on Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Nonetheless, before we start to explain the power of the church on the poem, it is necessary to write some words about Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), its author.

Chaucer had the opportunity to be in contact with a number of people from nobles to humble folk. He was born in London where his father was a vintner and due to this job, Chaucer had the chance to go to the Court, where he could be in touch with cult people and good books. Little by little he became a renowned person among the reign. At the highest pitch of his career he went to Italy where he probably met Petrarch (1304-1374) from whom Chaucer’s works were based on, and he was exposed to the writings of Boccaccio (1313-1375) and Dante (1265-1321). He assimilated from Boccaccio’s works the realistic tale form of the Decameron, though only Chaucer represented characters from the ordinary people. Afterwards, he went to France, where he studied the local literature. Owing to his knowledge, acquired from these very different cultures, his work can be divided into two main parts. The first one includes the production before his travels around Europe. The second one comprises the mature production in which The Canterbury Tales, undoubtedly, stand out.

The travelers readily accept the proposal of Harry Bailey, their jovial and domineering host, that he would go with them as leader and that they would enliven the journey with a story-telling contest (two stories from each pilgrim during each half of the journey), for the prize of a dinner at his inn on their return. Of the language it’s interesting to mention that for each person he uses a specific vocabulary and helps us to create the image of each one of the characters no only physically but also psychologically. Unfortunately, the author died before finishing his work.

For many reasons Chaucer is regarded as the Father of English Literature and consolidator of the Middle English. His mature production takes place during the end of the transition from the Old English to the Middle and contains otherwise many features of written form, differently from the oral tradition of the previous time. His works, especially the Canterbury Tales, represent a realistic - and at the same humorous - report of the medieval society.

THE LAWYER

A sergeant of the law, wary and wise,
Who'd often gone to Paul's walk to advise,
There was also, compact of excellence.
Discreet he was, and of great reverence;
At least he seemed so, his words were so wise.
Often he sat as justice in assize,
By patent or commission from the crown;
Because of learning and his high renown,
He took large fees and many robes could own.
So great a purchaser was never known.
All was fee simple to him, in effect,
Wherefore his claims could never be suspect.
Nowhere a man so busy of his class,
And yet he seemed much busier than he was.
All cases and all judgments could he cite
That from King William's time were apposite.
And he could draw a contract so explicit
Not any man could fault therefrom elicit;
And every statute he'd verbatim quote.
He rode but badly in a medley coat,
Belted in a silken sash, with little bars,
But of his dress no more particulars.
(The Canterbury Tales, 1999, pags. 8-9)

We can also compare Beowulf and The Canterbury Tales to figure out some differences and similarities. Besides being an epic, Beowulf is based on the oral tradition and was copied by monks, who certainly introduced Christian passages on it, while The Canterbury Tales was first-hand written. They also differ in terms of structure, because Beowulf is based on an unrhymed alliterative verse, while The Canterbury Tales are rhymed. Each two lines rhyme to each other. Beowulf is a hero committed to save his country, kin of the king, with supernatural power, while the hero in Chaucer is the knight, committed to obey God’s wishes, to protect women and kids. The knight is described as very sophisticated person, well educated with a respectful past, successful at the battlefields, but he represents the essence of a group. On the other hand, Beowulf is a fearless warrior pictured as someone whose desire is to achieve the will of the whole nation.

THE KNIGHT

A knight there was, and he a worthy man,
Who, from the moment that he first began
To ride about the world, loved chivalry,
Truth, honour, freedom and all courtesy.
Full worthy was he in his liege−lord's war,
And therein had he ridden (none more far)
As well in Christendom as heathenesse,
And honoured everywhere for worthiness.
At Alexandria, he, when it was won;
Full oft the table's roster he'd begun
Above all nations' knights in Prussia.
In Latvia raided he, and Russia,
No christened man so oft of his degree.
In far Granada at the siege was he
Of Algeciras, and in Belmarie.
At Ayas was he and at Satalye
When they were won; and on the Middle Sea
At many a noble meeting chanced to be.
Of mortal battles he had fought fifteen,
And he'd fought for our faith at Tramissene
Three times in lists, and each time slain his foe.
This self−same worthy knight had been also
At one time with the lord of Palatye
Against another heathen in Turkey:
And always won he sovereign fame for prize.
Though so illustrious, he was very wise
And bore himself as meekly as a maid.
He never yet had any vileness said,
In all his life, to whatsoever wight.
He was a truly perfect, gentle knight.
But now, to tell you all of his array,
His steeds were good, but yet he was not gay.
Of simple fustian wore he a jupon
Sadly discoloured by his habergeon;
For he had lately come from his voyage
And now was going on this pilgrimage.
(The Canterbury Tales, 1999, pag. 3)

BEOWULF

"Thou Hrothgar, hail! Hygelac's I,
kinsman and follower. Fame a plenty
have I gained in youth! These Grendel-deeds
I heard in my home-land heralded clear.
Seafarers say how stands this hall,
of buildings best, for your band of thanes
empty and idle, when evening sun
in the harbor of heaven is hidden away.
So my vassals advised me well, --
brave and wise, the best of men, --
O sovran Hrothgar, to seek thee here,
for my nerve and my might they knew full well.
Themselves had seen me from slaughter come
blood-flecked from foes, where five I bound,
and that wild brood worsted. I' the waves I slew
nicors by night, in need and peril
avenging the Weders, whose woe they sought, --
crushing the grim ones. Grendel now,
monster cruel, be mine to quell
in single battle! So, from thee,
thou sovran of the Shining-Danes,
Scyldings'-bulwark, a boon I seek, --
and, Friend-of-the-folk, refuse it not,
O Warriors'-shield, now I've wandered far, --
that I alone with my liegemen here,
this hardy band, may Heorot purge!
More I hear, that the monster dire,
in his wanton mood, of weapons recks not;
hence shall I scorn -- so Hygelac stay,
king of my kindred, kind to me! --
brand or buckler to bear in the fight,
gold-colored targe: but with gripe alone
must I front the fiend and fight for life,
foe against foe. Then faith be his
in the doom of the Lord whom death shall take.
Fain, I ween, if the fight he win,
in this hall of gold my Geatish band
will he fearless eat, -- as oft before, --
my noblest thanes. Nor need'st thou then
to hide my head; for his shall I be,
dyed in gore, if death must take me;
and my blood-covered body he'll bear as prey,
ruthless devour it, the roamer-lonely,
with my life-blood redden his lair in the fen:
no further for me need'st food prepare!
To Hygelac send, if Hild should take me,
best of war-weeds, warding my breast,
armor excellent, heirloom of Hrethel
and work of Wayland. Fares Wyrd as she must."
Beowulf, 1999, lines 407-455)

At the end of the medieval period, new classes appeared and the variety of people is wonderfully represented on the Canterbury Tales, especially because of the crusades. These very interesting expeditions firstly had a religious target – to take Jerusalem back from the Turks -, but ended up representing a very good opportunity of exchange culture, knowledge and of course money. From the orient came new cookeries, different forms of solving mathematics problems and new strategies to make a living.

One can refer to the medieval period as dark ages. Fortunately, Chaucer’s descriptions lend us a hand to understand some details about the context of the time. The conception of Middle Ages and all the other variants represent a prejudice against the centuries inserted within this period of history. The term was created by intellectuals during the Renaissance to refer to the previous period as an interruption to the progress of the world. For such intellectuals the period was seen as a time of barbary, ignorance and superstition. Actually, the Renaissance became stronger as the Medieval became weaker as well as both terms became known throughout Europe. Though, in many aspects, the medieval period is superior than our time. First, the power of destruction and the amount of wars we have seen now-a-days was impossible to be thought during the middle ages. Those men didn't know the atomic energy, missile tomahawk or military submarine that help to wipe out a number of people every years. So, excluding the terrible deceases, the human kind, at a certain extent, was safe in those times. They, also had a stronger religious basis with a unifying aspect, once not so many religions were available. Finally, they were much closer to nature as most of the forests and native live still abound in the middle ages added to the nonexistence of polluting industries and urban occupation.

Even though, within the second half of the fifteenth century (1445-1485) England suffered with the Wars of the Roses, in which the House of York, whose emblem was a white rose, and the House of Lancaster, represented by a red rose, disputed the throne of England. 40 years of deaths and crowns had passed until, after the death of Richard III, the quarrel was finally resolved by marriage between the families, from where came Henry VII, inaugurating the Tudor line and putting an end to the medieval period. By this time, the feudal system brought to England by the Norman-French conquerors was not convenient any more, so the country experienced a sort of revolution throughout the following period.